The number of international students studying at Scotland’s universities rose to a record high in the 2022-2023 academic year.
Overseas students made up nearly 29% of the total, with their tuition fees providing an important source of funding for universities.
The biggest proportion by far continued to come from China – nearly 20,000 students – but thousands more came from India, Nigeria and the United States.
The number of Scottish students who benefit from free undergraduate tuition was down by about 10,000, but they still made up nearly 60% of the total.
Of the 292,240 higher education students, 173,745 were from Scotland while 83,975 were from outside the UK, according to the figures from the Higher Education Statistics Agency.
The proportion of Scottish to international students varied considerably between universities.
Two of Scotland’s top universities, Edinburgh and St Andrews, both had more international students than Scottish students.
Universities Scotland believes there has been a drop-off in students arriving from abroad since 2023, which could put the sector's finances under serious pressure in future.
It says free tuition for Scottish undergraduates is made possible by the financial contribution of overseas students.
A spokesperson said the figures were a snapshot of the situation two years ago before international upheavals and proposed changes to UK immigration policy affected applications.
"That means this data does not provide a sense of what universities are experiencing now," they said.
'We are stimulating the economy'
John Chinda and Demi Eleno are both Nigerian students studying for PhD qualifications at Dundee University.
Demi, 32, whose doctorate is in renewable energy policy, says there is a vibrant community of international students and being part of Scottish culture is a "wonderful" experience.
She says Scottish universities actively recruit in Nigeria, and while her government will sponsor people for scholarships, it remains an expensive undertaking.
“We pay at least four times the amount that other students pay. Aside from the average of £15,000 to £23,000 that students pay each year, you're also going to have to pay for rent, buy groceries, go out to eat," she says.
"We are stimulating the economy, so it's a bit sad to hear the anti-immigration rhetoric that we’re coming here to drain your resources when it’s the exact opposite.”
John, 51, who is studying at the university's centre for energy law, says rising prices are a worry that affects his attitude toward his studies.
He says: “When you leave your country, you don't come here to play games.
"You come here because, you know, you don't have a chance to fail. Because if you fail, you have fees to pay."
Some academics say the over-reliance on income from international students is not sustainable – and both UK and Scottish governments need to reconsider this model of funding higher education.
Scotland is the only UK nation that offers free university tuition to its home students.
Students who study at universities in England and Wales have to pay up to £9,250 in undergraduate tuition fees, usually financed by student loans.
The Student Awards Agency Scotland pays £1,820 per year in tuition fees on behalf of most Scottish undergraduate students working towards their first degree.
Prof Sarah Armstrong, an academic at the University of Glasgow, said: "That's just a drop in the bucket to actually what the education costs.
“It raises the question of whether it is right that the government doesn't fund Scottish student places to the extent that it's necessary to actually cover the cost of their education."
The number of funded university places for Scottish students was raised during the Covid pandemic, but plans to reduce them by 1,200 were detailed in last December's budget.
Overseas undergraduates typically pay more than 10 times as much for tuition, though the majority are studying for postgraduate qualifications where the disparity is smaller.
Prof Armstrong believes cuts in funding have forced universities to become increasingly reliant on overseas students, but she says it is an "inherently unpredictable" source of income.
"It makes planning extremely difficult," she said.
"The global situation right now is very troubling for a lot of different reasons, but that also has impacts on choices people make about their education.
“When universities expect high numbers, and they don’t meet those numbers, they're going to hit some serious financial risk.”
Prof Armstrong believes there are also ethical questions around the reliance on international students to pay for Scottish students to go to university.
“It's not just a source of income. It's human beings who are making choices to come here," she said.
Free tuition commitment
The Scottish government welcomed the number of international students choosing to study in Scotland.
Higher and Further Education Minister Graeme Dey said: "International students play an incredibly positive economic, social and cultural role in Scotland.
"They add to the diversity of our communities, enrich the learning experience and support local businesses and jobs."
Mr Dey also pointed to separate figures from the admissions body Ucas, which suggest that the number of Scottish students accepted for the 2024/25 academic year will rise by 7%, including a 12% increase in acceptances from the 20 most deprived areas.
He insisted the government has a "resolute commitment" to maintaining free tuition for undergraduates.
“It is hugely encouraging to see a record number of Scottish students from our most disadvantaged communities getting into university," he said.
“This demonstrates the strong progress being made on widening access to higher education and ensuring every young person in Scotland has an equal chance of success, no matter their background or circumstance."
Scottish Conservative education spokesperson Liam Kerr said SNP cuts had made universities too reliant on overseas students.
“While it is welcome many students from around the world are choosing to study in Scotland, universities have made it clear that the SNP’s arbitrary cap on places for Scottish students means they are having to turn away many talented homegrown students each year," he said.
